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During the Soviet period the retirement of the country's political elite took a variety of forms, including transfers to honorific positions in which they typically retained their privileges. Under Gorbachev a dramatic increase in the number of retirements exceeded the capacity of such positions to absorb them. The number of retirements increased still further under Boris Yeltsin, and earlier courtesies were no longer observed; the first voluntary retirements began to take place, and repressive retirements. ‘Reservations’ began to be developed at the same time, from which former officials might be recalled to government service; retirement no longer meant political death. But the development of private business, and of representative institutions, also opened new opportunities for leading officials to resist their marginalization, and even oppose the Kremlin. Putin has since restored stability within the elite, and it is likely that leading officials will reward him for this ‘stability of cadres’ with their continuing loyalty.

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